One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. [224] The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC. [278] He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet. "[117] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. [17] Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals, following Antigonus’s lead in 306, took the title of king. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus (Indian name Puru), to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. On finding the army adamant, Alexander agreed to turn back. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles. Alexander the Great takes power. But before talking about all of the things that he conquered, let's think about how he got started out and in particular, how he's able to consolidate control over the empire that his father begins. Alexander the great facts. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus, but he was to die before this could be done. [164], While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander. [200] He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns. [190], Historian and Egyptologist Joann Fletcher has said that the Alexander had blond hair. [277] Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. [141] There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. The world that was created by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great in just a few years was far more united than any time before that in history. [248] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. [132][133] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. [144][147] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. [236], The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. Alexander the Great's conquests freed the West from the menace of Persian rule and spread Greek civilization and culture into Asia and Egypt. [38] During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir. [71] According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword. [169][170] However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus' death. [73] He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. [271], Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. [273] In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه‎ Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. [212] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together. [106][238] However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples. This empire was called Macedonia, and when Alexander grew up, he inherited control of it. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. [1][2] He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders.[3]. [65][66], Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[59] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. [37] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. As a teenager, Alexander became known for his exploits on the battlefield. Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander’s campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë, Albania) in Illyria to Thebes. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala. But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Alexander was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia. [101], Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. [252] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[citation needed] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. Undefeated in battle, he un leashed his army on countries great and small to forge an empire that stretched over three continents, from Greece to India and as far south as Egypt. [276] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature. In November 332 he reached Egypt. It included: Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. [e] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus. Ptolemy was appointed as satrap of Egypt in 323 BCE, by Perdiccas during the succession crisis that erupted following Alexander the Great. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. The advance was successful and broke Darius' center, causing the latter to flee once again. )", East-West Orientation of Historical Empires, (Libanius, Oration In Praise Of Antioch, 88. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, §7.20- Greek, Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, §7.20- English, "The Mughal Sikander: Influence of the Romance of Alexander on Mughal Manuscript Painting", "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_the_Great&oldid=999873762, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2016, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015, Articles containing Persian-language text, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links, Wikipedia articles with BALaT identifiers, Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers, Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with TePapa identifiers, Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the, Conquest of Arabia and the entire Mediterranean basin, Development of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties", "Empire" as a description of foreign policy, This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 11:09. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[235] and was the largest state of its time. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. [40] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. [40] Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties. [157], Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. His advance eastward was now rapid. Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon, he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris, and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. [78] After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. The celebrated Macedonian king has been one of the most enduring figures in history. Conqueror and king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great was born on July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella, in the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. [148] Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,[209] a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style. Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia, (born 356 bce, Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce, Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]), king of Macedonia (336–323 bce), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. [236] That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch[245] and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad). [157] Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. [109], When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. [113] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[16]. Updates? The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, 5.31. [11], Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. About The History of Alexander The essential history of Alexander the Great, compelling and brilliantly realized Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), who led the Macedonian army to victory in Egypt, Syria, Persia and India, was perhaps the most successful conqueror the world has ever seen. [151][152][153] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance. The Ptolemaic dynasty survived until the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE, at which point Egypt was conquered by the Romans. [147][149] There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated. [201] This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. Alexander the Great leading his forces against the retreating Persian army led by Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333. He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. [60] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of 20. [124], East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He had grown up to the idea. [123] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. [105] The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. [59] This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. Was it Veratrum album? [60], According to ancient writers Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" (Greek: Μαργίτης)[61][62][63] and a boy. [9] He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. [237], Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. 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